Headwear

le Képi (“kepi”)

Regulation kepi in August 1914

M1884: This was the kepi that soldiers marched off to war with in August 1914. In appearance, it differed little from mid-19th century models. Made of wool, the M1884 was composed of six pieces: the band in dark blue, the turban (consisting of four pieces) in garance (“madder”) red and the cap, also in madder red. The height was 90 mm in the front and 150 mm at the back. The band was 40 mm high. The visor was black leather and measured 45 mm at its center. The M1884 was made in three different sizes: 140, 145 or 150 mm in diameter. There were two metal aeration vents, 15 mm in diameter and pierced with seven holes, in the color of the cloth (madder red for infantry). The chinstrap was black leather, secured by two small uniform buttons (imprinted with an exploding grenade). All seams were hidden by a dark blue wool piping.

A headband of blackened animal hide, 50 mm high, was sewn to the interior of the kepi, along with a cover piece sewn against the backside of the cap. In comparison to the all-encompassing pieces used in other services (e.g. the artillery, engineers, cuirassiers and dragoons), the infantry version was referred to as “reduced.” A circular patch was cut in the center of the cover piece could be flipped back and a piece of cloth inserted between it and the wool on which the soldier would inscribe his last name and company (alternately, a regimental, manufacturer, serial number or size stamps appear here). Between the headband and the wool was a shell of treated linen liner maintained by the turned-down vent teeth and a few stitched points. Though in theory the shell was to always be included in war-time, depleted stocks in 1914 meant that some reserve regiments were provided kepis without the shell, which lent the hat a truly formless shape.

     

The regimental insignia consisted of digits cut from fine madder red wool (NCOs wool), 25 mm high, which were sewn onto a dark blue patch 40 mm high and 3, 5 or 7 cm wide, depending on the number of digits needed (1-3). Out of urgency, some reservists wore kepis that were garnished with the old style insignia that had originally been sewn to the greatcoat. Thus, examples exist of insignia patches bordered with madder red piping, insignia cover-patches or insignia where the color of the digits and the patch were reversed.

Regulation kepi in September 1914

After a month of war where the conspicuous appearance of the French uniform factored into the catastrophic losses suffered by the army, it was quickly realized that immediate measures had to be taken to reduce the visibility of the soldier. Yet at the same time, decision-makers didn't want to deprive the French soldier of his traditional distinctive silhouette. Thus, while the kepi would be retained, alternative colors and simpler designs were adopted. This all made for a diverse variety of kepis in use at the same time. What follows are the most common variants:

Simplified M1914 1st Type: As the title states, the simplified M1914 was created, per the decree of 14 September 1914, to ease and expedite production of the kepi. While the intention was to have the kepi fabricated entirely in the new "light blue" cloth (referred to at this time as "bluish gray"), the Quarter-Master had to rely on all available materials. Thus, the simplified kepis would be made in both the new light blue (itself varying in shade from ash blue to medium blue to dark blue-gray) and the old iron blue or dark blue wool. The second specification was that the band and turban were made into a single band in two parts, which are joined on either end, the seams being found on the front and back of the kepi. Finally, the piping was eliminated from the kepi. Chinstraps were made in both black and, non-regulation brown leather. The interior shell continues to be made of treated linen but potato sacking was also employed. The small uniform buttons (in bronze but mostly in tin or zinc) continued to be used, either painted in the color of the cloth or left unpainted. Plain metal buttons were also used.

The same official notice of September 1914 also specified that the regimental insignia for line infantry was to now have digits cut from blue gray wool on a madder red patch. In reality, the old insignia (madder red digits on dark blue patch) were widely employed by the depots, where the insignia was applied. Various alternative designs also appeared, including examples where the digits were sewn directly onto the front of the kepi.

Simplified M1914 2nd Type: The M1914 2nd Type was intended to be the definitive pattern kepi to be employed for the duration of the war. It came out of the notice of 9 December 1914. The two primary specifications were that the visor and chinstrap only be made of black leather and that the seam edges of the top of the kepi be brought up to level (contrary to previous models where the seam edges were one centimeter below the actual top). The first specification addressed the use of brown leather chinstraps on the 1st Type kepi, though examples exist of 2nd Type kepis were brown chinstraps. The second specification was intended to prevent the pooling of water on the top of the hat. As such, the height of the back of the kepi was reduced to 115 mm while the front was lowered slightly to 80 mm. The diameter of the cap was 145 mm.

The notice also decreed that the cloth to be used was the new "light blue" wool. Other specifications included the elimination of the cap reinforcement, that the vents and buttons were to be painted in the same color as the cloth, and that there was to be no piping or regimental insignia. This last specification would often go ignored as photographs from the time show the presence of regimental insignia well after December 1914.

Non-regulation kepis

There are two categories of kepis that fall under the title of non-regulation models. The first is kepis delivered to the army by manufacturers in the framework of the official design but which did not adhere to the exact specifications made. The second category is private purchase kepis.

M1884/14 1st Type: With the first shipments of the new uniform cloth, manufacturers begin to produce kepis in the cloth without waiting for the description given in the official notice of 19 September 1914. As such, kepis identical in cut and ornamentation to the existing M1884 were produced with the exception that all pieces were made entirely of the same color cloth. The old iron blue wool was used, as was dark blue and the new light blue (again, in various shades). They were also still garnished with dark blue piping. Light blue piping was also used.

Even after the official decree was presented though, manufacturers continued to make what is referred to as the M1884/14 1st Type. The reason for this is that it allowed manufacturers to both adhere to army regulations and use all available cloth while still making a profit. Thus, the band and turban would be cut from five small pieces and not two as done previously. Additionally, the old patterns and stamping-pieces could still be used and not discarded. In the army's desperate need for kepis, these hybrid kepis were accepted and distributed to the ranks.

M1884/14 2nd Type: All colors of cloth continued to be employed in what is referred to as the M1884/14 2nd Type, despite the publishing of the official decree of September. The only difference between the 1st Type and the 2nd Type is that the latter saw the elimination of the piping. The same rules as to why the non-regulation kepis continued to be produced by manufacturers and accepted by the army apply here. Production of the M1884/14 2nd Type would continue until the notice of December 1914 where particulars of the M1914 kepi were outlined.

Felt Kepi: Certainly the most bizarre kepi produced was that distributed at the end of 1914. Made in two molded pieces, shell and visor bordered in leather, in a thick gray blue felt. It was fitted with the classic chinstrap. Aeration was achieved by a single eyelet on either side of the cap. It has been put forward that the felt kepi was actually a pre-war design that had not gone into production but which the Quarter-Master decided to distribute out of concerns of economy. The fragility of the felt kepis was clearly evident, as it was easily crushed when not being worn. It was also sensitive to moisture and became easily deformed in the rain. As such, the felt kepis were mostly relegated to troops at the depots and not commonly distributed to soldiers in the forward zones.

Private Purchase: Shortly after the outbreak of war, hat makers began peddling private purchase kepis to the men. Kepis were already in private production before the war, so businesses simply stepped up the production levels. Acquired directly by soldiers with a more discerning taste or sent by loved ones back home, these kepis fall into two broad categories. With the adoption of the new infantry kepi, some manufacturers begin producing an improved version very similar to the regulation model. Made in the light blue cloth of the troop, these kepis closely resemble the M1914 1st Type with certain details that are different. The cap was made in four quarters, a nicer liner, air vents that are more discreet, and a fancier chinstrap. While tolerated by the Quarter-Master, the use of private purchase kepis amongst enlistedmen remained rare.

A second category of private purchase kepi, for those soldiers who had the means, was a "troop version" of the officers kepi intended for rear-area ("stepping out") use. This type was often referred to as a fantasie ("fantasy") kepi and there were two primary designs. One was the "polo" form, which had a more defined cylindrical shape (owing to a reinforced cap) and piping. The other type was the "manchon" ("muff") form, which had a low profile and a flat top, along with a false chinstrap made of cloth. Due to their cost and maintenance, both types became the privilege of soldiers in the rear-areas and were not commonly worn by front line soldiers. Otherwise, only officers and NCOs could afford to purchase one.

le Couvre-Képi (“kepi-cover”)

M1902, M1913: Representing the only camouflaging expedient prior to the start of the war (1912), all infantrymen were supplied with a kepi-cover. The cover had a synching cord and one buttonhole on either side where the kepi buttons would secure it to the hat. The M1902 was made of white, impermeable calico dyed iron blue-gray. It had three rear button loops, intended to receive the three hooks of the neck-cover. The M1912 was produced in iron blue-gray (cretonne) cotton and on these the button loops were replaced with three rear buttons (black varnished metal). Both models were worn in 1914, however the neck-cover was typically not worn.

Simplified M1914: As a exigent measure, the simplified model goes into production at the beginning in August 1914 and was not equipped with the rear buttons to attach neck-cover. In principal, this model was intended for distribution among the reserve and territorial units.

Alterations to the kepi-covers took two forms, one man-made and the other natural. To the first point, some soldiers opted to cut a hole in the kepi cover so that the regimental insignia was visible. The natural alteration was a feature shared by every model of kepi-cover: the rapidity at which they became discolored after continual exposure to the elements. Under the August sun, they first faded to an ash blue. Through the months, the look of the covers will be for the less disparate, turning every possible shade of blue: whitened by dust, stained by mud, greened by moisture.

Oilskin Cover: Although against regulations, many soldiers purchased kepi-covers of oilskin canvas on their own initiative. These were similarly equipped with a synching cord and, unlike the regulation model, afforded a good protection against the rain.

M1891:

M1891/15:

M1918:

Private Purchase:

M1915: With the adoption of the Adrian helmet in 1915, the issue arose of providing to the soldiers an off-duty hat that could be easily transported in the soldier's pack or haversack. It did not seem suitable to retain the kepi for this reason. Additionally, this option would necessitate continuing fabrication as new distributions were required. For these reasons, a simpler hat was adopted 31 July 1915 in the design of the elite Alpine chasseur beret but made of resalvaged horizon-blue wool. It was composed of four pieces: the crown, the turban in two parts and the padding. Unlike the chasseur version, there is no interior liner. In the face of overwhelming criticism, mostly from covetous chasseurs unhappy that the garment symbolic of their elite status was distributed to the common infantryman, the decision was reversed only a month and half later. The police bonnet would serve the purpose instead. Yet during it's brief existence, the horizon blue beret would be produced in great numbers (250,000) and distributed widely.

Private Purchase: Private purchase berets were also produced. These were more traditional in appearance made of brushed horizon-blue wool and were made from a single piece of fabric, unlike the regulation model. A private purchase beret appeared in catalogs of the time selling for 5.50 Francs.

Regulation beret on top, private purchase on bottom.

As the French army’s casualties rapidly mounted in the summer and fall of 1914, it became evident that head wounds would be a defining injury of the conflict. Most often these had been inflicted by shrapnel, shell fragments or other flying debris. To help reduce the number of head wounds, Quartermaster General Louis Adrian proposed in December 1914 the production of protective headgear. The first initiative was rudimentary in the extreme: a steel bowl called the cervelière ("skull-cap, or more literally, “brain-pan”). The idea originated with reports of the soldiers’ mess-tins being struck by shrapnel balls but had not been punctured. At first, the Grand Quartier Général (G.Q.G.) remained reticent about the brain-pan. The belief was that the war would be over before the helmets could be produced and distributed to the troops. Yet after further convincing from General Adrian, G.Q.G. signed-off on production of the economized form of head protection.

The brain-pan was a stamped steel skull-cap intended to be worn under the kepi. In actual use, the troops took to wearing them on top for comfort. It was .5 mm thick, semi-spherical in shape, and had two holes drilled into either side allowing it to be hung by a cord while not in use. French troops also found another use for the brain-pans. They made for good cooking receptacles or even, when in need, as chamber pots. Between December 1914 and February 1915, 700,000 brain-pans were made, with 200,000 actually being issued to the ranks. Yet they offered only mediocre protection against small shell fragments, shrapnel and stones. Something far better was needed.

Though the brain-pan produced only marginally positive results, its use still led to a decrease in the number of casualties. This caught General Joffre’s attention, and by the end of February 1915 he was convinced of the need for head protection. He ordered that a more suitable helmet be produced and Adrian jumped to work. His idea was to create a helmet that both offered both increased protection and comfort. It had to weigh as little as possible yet be strong and easy to manufacture in large quantities. His design was largely based off preexisting helmets employed by the light-cavalry, which in turn had been inspired by the Bourgoignotte helmet of the medieval times. In March and April 1915, manufacturers were given the prototype of the infantry helmet. These producers had previously been making the more complicated and ornate pre-war helmet for light-cavalry, as well as those employed by the Paris fire brigade. Adrian submitted his design to the French authorities for final approval at the end of April 1915, with production beginning immediately.

The helmet was 7 mm thick and weighed roughly 1.8 pounds. It was composed of four pieces: a shell, a visor, a neck guard and a crest. On the crown, a badge was attached in the form of a flaming grenade and embossed with the letters “RF” (République Française). The color used in painting was a light grey-blue, which was sprayed on. Once fired in the kiln, the paint darkened to a glossy slate-blue. The helmet liners were originally made of sheepskin but would later be changed to the more resilient goatskin. The first model liner was cut from one piece, with the leather being blackened and varnished. Beginning in the fall of 1915, a second model would be used consisting of two pieces sewn together, the leather being left natural. The liner was mounted on a strip of recycled wool (madder or dark-blue), which was itself lined with four strips of corrugated aluminum. These strips secured to the shell of the helmet via the use of hooks soldered to the shell. The chinstrap was similarly made of first sheepskin (blackened) and then goatskin (natural) and could be tightened using a black-lacquered iron buckle.

The helmet was manufactured in three sizes A, B and C, each being subdivided into three inner lining sizes. The result was nine sizes of head circumference, from 54-62 cm.

Of the roughly fifty manufactures initially called upon to put out the helmet, only fifteen are retained: two to produce the steel sheet metal, five to produce the head pieces and chinstraps, eight to manufacture and incorporate the paint and position the head piece and chinstrap. The stamping equipment was particularly delicate and complex. It required some fifty tools to create the exploding bomb insignia attached to the crown. It took a good month for production to become regular and to conform to the standards that Adrian originally set. For example, the Japy facility was contracted to have produced 529,000 helmets by 1 August 1915 but had only made 141,000 by that time. Yet Adrian remained optimistic as manufacturers steadily increased production levels. At the end of August, 52,000 helmets were being turned out daily. By the start of the Champagne offensive on 15 September 1915, 1,600,000 Adrian helmets had been distributed to the army. By the end of the year, this number was over 3 million.

The price of manufacturing each was only 3.35 francs. In comparison, a regulation kepi cost 3.80 francs each. And when compared to the price that British manufacturers were asking for each of their helmets–15.65 to 18.75 francs–this was a real bargain. Meanwhile, French industrialists, steel manufacturers and those who had declined to participate in the production of quartermaster helmets, fashioned for their personal profit a model close to the official Adrian. These commercial helmets were sold at a price of 20 to 25 francs and were of a much inferior quality. The metal used in its construction proved too rigid and when struck by a projectile tended to fracture into splinters, only adding to the trauma of the wound. At the end of September, Joffre prohibited the production and use of these commercial helmets in the zone of armies.

The appearance of the Adrian as standard equipment of the soldier showed an immediate decrease in the number and severity of head wounds. The helmets, at first designated to just the infantry, are soon distributed to all the branches of service. The only distinguishing characteristic on the helmet between each of the branches was in the badge mounted on the crown. For the infantry and cavalry, it was the flaming grenade; for light-infantry, a horn; foreign marksmen and zouaves, a crescent moon; artillery, two crossed canons surmounted by a flaming grenade; colonial troops, an anchor surmounted by a flaming grenade. For the non-fighting wings, the badge was, for the engineers, a cuirass and helmet; for medical, a caduceus entwined by a serpent surrounded by oak and laurel branches; for quartermaster, a fascine with a backdrop of flags and laurel wreaths.

Officers often had specialized badges made, which typically incorporated rank insignia. The chinstrap was often replaced with one of higher-quality make, such as woven leather. The only serious flaw with the design process was discovered in the field and it came down to paint. Specifically, the glossy finish reflected sunlight too easily, making for an easily identified target even at long distances. As a short-term measure, cloth helmet covers were distributed in light blue and natural white beginning in the winter of 1915-16. Commonly, in the absence of a helmet cover soldiers camouflaged their helmet with mud. An unintended side effect of both this practice and the cloth covers was an increased rate of infection, as mud and cloth particles were blasted into the wound.

In June 1916, more permanent efforts were made to reduce the visibility of the helmets by reducing the glossiness of the paint. It was found that if the helmet was fired for an extra period of time in the kilns, the result was a darker tint that had a matte grey-blue appearance. On 8 July, distribution of these less visible helmets began. Helmets distributed before the new painting process began were either reclaimed and repainted, or were painted over at the local echelon using a matte dark-gray or dark-blue. In the latter case, the paint was applied using a brush. In October, the practice of camouflaging the helmet using mud was prohibited. As distribution of the new helmets increased, the helmet cover was taken out of service.

Meanwhile, distribution had soared to 7 million by the end of 1916. That year, France began selling the Adrian to foreign armies at the price of 6 francs each. Italy bought 1,600,000; Russia, 340,000; Belgium, 208,000; Serbia, 123,000; Romania, 90,000; Holland, 10,000. By war’s end, a total of over 20 million Adrians had been made. On 18 December 1918, a decree is made awarding a helmet to each officer or soldier having belonged to an army formation. This helmet is provided with a plaque, a brass souvenir covering over the visor and bearing the inscription “Soldat de la Grande Guerre 1914-1918” (“Soldier of the Great War 1914-1918”). These ceremonial helmets are sent out on the 16 April 1916. The Adrian remained the standard military issue in the French army until after World War II, and was also used by the French police up to the 1970s.

Sources:
Bernard, Gilles and Gérard Lachaux. “L’Uniform du Poilu 1914-1918.” Gazette des Uniformes – Hors-Série No. 19. Paris: 2005.
Berrafato, Laurent. “Le Fantassin de la Grande Guerre, 1914/18.” Gazette des Uniformes. Series No. 3, 1994.
Mirouze, Laurent and Stéphane Dekerle. The French Army in the First World War: Vol. 2: 1914-1918. Verlag Militaria, Vienna: 2008.
Verney, Jean-Pierre. “Adrian, un grand servant de l’État.” 14-18: Le magazine de la Grande Guerre. No. 11, Dec./Jan. 2003.